Use who when the person performs the action, and use whom when the person receives the action or follows a preposition in formal English. Replace the word with he, she, or they to test for who; replace it with him, her, or them to test for whom. The sentence structure, not politeness or formality alone, determines the choice.
Key Facts
Who is the subject form, equivalent to he, she, or they.
Whom is the object form, equivalent to him, her, or them.
The correct test is based on the clause containing the pronoun, not necessarily the whole sentence.
Use whom after a directly preceding preposition in formal writing: “To whom did you send it?”
“Who did you send it to?” is normal in conversation and accepted in many modern style contexts.
Whom can function as a direct object, indirect object, or object of a preposition.
Who vs. Whom: Which to Use When With Examples
The basic distinction is grammatical: who performs an action, while whom receives an action or follows a preposition. “Who approved the budget?” means the person approved it. “Whom did the committee approve?” means the committee approved that person.
The difference comes from English case forms. Who is the nominative, or subject, form, while whom is the objective form. The same contrast appears in “she” and “her,” or “they” and “them.”
| Pronoun | Grammatical role | Substitution | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| who | Subject | he, she, they | Who opened the door? |
| whom | Direct object | him, her, them | Whom did you call? |
| whom | Indirect object | him, her, them | Whom did you give the keys? |
| whom | Prepositional object | him, her, them | With whom did you travel? |
The distinction is easiest in short sentences. It becomes less obvious when a question reverses normal word order, when a clause contains an interrupting phrase, or when a preposition appears at the end.
How Does the He/Him Test Work?
The he/him test works by replacing who or whom with a personal pronoun and checking whether the subject form or object form fits. Use who for he, she, or they; use whom for him, her, or them.
Apply the test in four steps:
- Identify the clause containing who or whom.
- Ignore introductory or interrupting phrases such as “I think,” “the manager said,” or “according to Maria.”
- Reorder the clause into a normal statement if necessary.
- Choose the matching pronoun form.
| Sentence to test | Reordered clause | Correct form |
|---|---|---|
| Who/whom wrote the report? | She wrote the report. | Who |
| Who/whom did you meet? | You met him. | Whom |
| Who/whom received the award? | They received the award. | Who |
| Who/whom did the award committee select? | The committee selected her. | Whom |
| Who/whom did you send the invoice to? | You sent it to them. | Whom in formal placement |
The test does not depend on whether the person is important, respected, or unknown. It depends only on grammatical function.
What Is the Difference in Direct Questions?
In a direct question, use who when the unknown person is the subject and whom when the unknown person is an object. Question word order can hide the distinction because English often places the object before the subject.
Compare these pairs:
- Who called the office?
“Who” performed the calling. The hidden answer could be “She called the office.” - Whom did the office call?
“Whom” received the calling. The statement is “The office called him.” - Who won the election?
“Who” performed the action of winning. - Whom did the voters elect?
“Whom” received the voters’ action.
| Question | Statement order | Role of pronoun | Formal answer |
|---|---|---|---|
| Who invited Lena? | She invited Lena. | Subject | Who |
| Whom did Lena invite? | Lena invited him. | Direct object | Whom |
| Who sent the package? | They sent the package. | Subject | Who |
| Whom did the courier contact? | The courier contacted her. | Direct object | Whom |
A useful practitioner rule is to locate the verb first, then ask who performed it. If the unknown person did the verb, choose who. If someone else did the verb to that person, choose whom.
How Do Relative Clauses Change the Choice?
Relative clauses use who for a person who performs the clause’s verb and whom for a person who receives that verb. The noun before the relative clause does not determine the answer; the pronoun’s role inside the clause does.
- “The engineer who designed the bridge won an award.”
The engineer designed the bridge, so who is the subject. - “The engineer whom the city hired won an award.”
The city hired the engineer, so whom is the object.
| Relative clause | Clause reconstructed | Correct form |
|---|---|---|
| The student who solved the puzzle | He solved the puzzle. | who |
| The student whom the teacher praised | The teacher praised him. | whom |
| The clients who requested a refund | They requested a refund. | who |
| The clients whom the company refunded | The company refunded them. | whom |
Relative pronouns can be omitted when they function as objects, but not when they function as subjects:
- “The film that I watched was short.”
- “The film I watched was short.”
- “The actor who won thanked the audience.”
- “The actor won thanked the audience” is ungrammatical because the subject relative pronoun cannot be removed.
That omission provides a useful clue. If the sentence still works after removing the pronoun, the original pronoun was probably an object, making whom the formal choice.
When Should Whom Follow a Preposition?
Use whom after a directly preceding preposition in formal English because the preposition requires an object. Common examples include to whom, for whom, with whom, from whom, by whom, and about whom.
- “To whom should I address the letter?”
- “With whom did you discuss the contract?”
- “The consultant from whom we received advice retired.”
- “For whom are you buying the ticket?”
| Prepositional phrase | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| to whom | recipient | To whom did you send the file? |
| with whom | companion or participant | With whom did you work? |
| from whom | source | From whom did you hear that? |
| for whom | intended beneficiary | For whom is the reservation? |
| by whom | agent in passive voice | By whom was the decision made? |
“Whom” is not limited to prepositional phrases. The word can also be a direct object in “Whom did you invite?” and an indirect object in “Whom did you give the award?”
The strongest formal signal is immediate adjacency: when a preposition remains before the pronoun, choose whom.
Is “Who Did You Speak With?” Correct?
“Who did you speak with?” is standard conversational English, while “With whom did you speak?” is the more formal alternative. The difference results from preposition stranding, in which “with” moves to the end of the clause rather than remaining before its object.
Modern English permits stranded prepositions in many ordinary sentences:
- “Who are you going with?”
- “Who did the editor write to?”
- “Who were they talking about?”
Formal documents may prefer the fronted versions:
- “With whom are you going?”
- “To whom did the editor write?”
- “About whom were they talking?”
| Context | Natural wording | Formal wording | Recommendation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Conversation | Who did you speak with? | With whom did you speak? | Use who conversationally |
| Academic prose | Who did the study compare? | Whom did the study compare? | Use whom as object |
| Business email | Who should I contact? | Whom should I contact? | Both occur, who is less stiff |
| Formal letter | Who it may concern | To whom it may concern | Use the fixed formal phrase |
| Legal or administrative form | Who is the applicant? | To whom notice was given | Match the clause role |
Calling every sentence with a final preposition “incorrect” is too broad. The Chicago Manual of Style, 17th edition, treats preposition stranding as an established feature of English rather than a universal grammatical error. Style, audience, and sentence clarity determine whether fronting is worthwhile.
Which Form Fits Each Register?
Who fits nearly all spoken English and most contemporary general writing, while whom remains useful in formal prose, fixed expressions, and sentences where the object role needs to be explicit. The safest choice is grammatical accuracy first, followed by register.
| Register | Typical use of who | Typical use of whom | Best practical choice |
|---|---|---|---|
| Casual speech | Who did you see? | Rare outside fixed phrases | Prefer who |
| General web writing | Who should users contact? | Whom the policy affects | Use the grammatical form |
| Academic writing | The researchers who surveyed participants | Participants whom researchers surveyed | Use whom for clear objects |
| Formal correspondence | Who is responsible? | To whom it may concern | Use whom after fronted prepositions |
| Legal drafting | The party who files | The party whom the court notifies | Preserve role distinction |
| Fiction dialogue | Who are you with? | With whom did you travel? | Match the character’s voice |
The word whom is not automatically more intelligent or more professional. Incorrectly using “whom” in a subject position creates a visible error, as in “Whom is calling?” Correct formal grammar is better than formal-sounding grammar.
Why Is “Whom Is Calling?” Wrong?
“Whom is calling?” is wrong because the unknown person performs the action of calling. The correct sentence is “Who is calling?”, which can be reconstructed as “He is calling” or “They are calling.”
Overcorrection usually happens when writers associate whom with formality rather than object function. Apply the substitution test:
- “Whom is calling?”
- “Him is calling.”
- The object form fails, so who is required.
The same error appears in statements:
- Incorrect: “Whom will attend the meeting?”
- Correct: “Who will attend the meeting?”
- Incorrect: “The applicant whom submitted the form is waiting.”
- Correct: “The applicant who submitted the form is waiting.”
A quick proofreading trick is to ask whether the pronoun could be followed directly by a finite verb. In “who submitted,” who is the subject of “submitted.” In “whom the panel selected,” the panel is the subject, and whom is the object.
How Do Complex Sentences Cause Mistakes?
Complex sentences require analysis of the smallest clause, because an interrupting phrase does not change who performs the relevant action. Remove phrases such as “I think,” “we believe,” or “the report says,” then apply the substitution test to the remaining clause.
Consider:
- “She is the candidate who I think will win.”
- Remove “I think”: “The candidate will win.”
- Reconstruct it: “She will win.”
- Correct form: who.
Now compare:
- “She is the candidate whom I think the committee will select.”
- Remove “I think”: “The committee will select the candidate.”
- Reconstruct it: “The committee will select her.”
- Correct form: whom.
| Full sentence | Simplified clause | Correct form |
|---|---|---|
| The manager who we believe resigned left quietly. | He resigned. | who |
| The manager whom we believe the board dismissed left quietly. | The board dismissed him. | whom |
| The witness who the attorney said testified arrived early. | He testified. | who |
| The witness whom the attorney said the jury trusted arrived early. | The jury trusted him. | whom |
The nearest noun is not always the subject. In “the witness whom the jury trusted,” “jury” performs the trusting, while “witness” receives it.
What Happens With Compound Subjects and Objects?
Use who in compound subjects and whom in compound objects, even when the sentence sounds formal or awkward. Remove the other person temporarily to expose the pronoun’s role.
- “Maria and who are presenting?”
Test: “She is presenting.” In polished writing, “Who is presenting with Maria?” is usually clearer. - “The director invited Daniel and whom?”
Test: “The director invited him.” - “Between you and me, the schedule is unrealistic.”
The preposition “between” requires an object, so “me,” not “I,” is correct. The same principle produces “between you and whom” in formal wording.
| Compound phrase | Isolation test | Formal result |
|---|---|---|
| Alex and who will lead? | He will lead. | who |
| The supervisor praised Alex and whom? | She praised him. | whom |
| Between Jordan and whom? | Between him and me | whom |
| The award went to Priya and whom? | It went to them. | whom |
In everyday speech, speakers often recast these sentences because the formal forms sound heavy. Recasting improves clarity without sacrificing correctness: “Who will lead with Alex?” and “Whom did the supervisor praise besides Alex?”
What About Whoever and Whomever?
Whoever is the subject form of an indefinite relative pronoun, while whomever is the object form. The same he/him test applies, but the entire clause must be analyzed rather than the word’s position alone.
- “Whoever arrives first can open the office.”
Test: “He arrives first.” - “Choose whomever you trust.”
Test: “You trust him.” - “Give the certificate to whoever wins.”
Inside “whoever wins,” the pronoun is the subject of “wins,” even though the entire clause follows “to.” - “Give the certificate to whomever you select.”
Inside “you select,” the pronoun is the object of “select.”
This clause-level rule is counterintuitive because the preposition may govern the entire clause while the pronoun has a separate role inside that clause.
| Sentence | Relevant clause | Correct form |
|---|---|---|
| Whoever answers gets the point. | He answers. | whoever |
| Hire whomever you recommend. | You recommend him. | whomever |
| Give it to whoever is available. | He is available. | whoever |
| Give it to whomever the manager chooses. | The manager chooses him. | whomever |
In informal English, whoever increasingly replaces whomever, especially when the construction is long. Formal writers should use the clause test rather than automatically choosing the form after “to.”
Who, Whom, Whose, and Which: What Is the Difference?
Who and whom refer to people, whose expresses possession, and which generally refers to things or animals, although style choices vary for animals and organizations. These forms cannot substitute for one another simply because they introduce similar clauses.
| Word | Function | Person example | Nonperson example |
|---|---|---|---|
| who | Subject relative pronoun | The analyst who called | The dog who barked, informal style |
| whom | Object relative pronoun | The analyst whom we hired | Not normally used for objects |
| whose | Possessive relative pronoun | The analyst whose report won | The company whose policy changed |
| which | Relative pronoun for things | Not preferred for people | The policy which changed |
Examples make the contrast clearer:
- “The author who wrote the novel won.”
- “The author whom the publisher hired won.”
- “The author whose novel sold well won.”
- “The novel which the author wrote won an award.”
Do not use whom merely because a sentence refers to a person. The word must occupy an object position.
What Is the Fastest Practical Decision Rule?
Use who when the answer would be he, she, or they; use whom when the answer would be him, her, or them. In casual speech, use who freely with a final preposition, but retain whom after a fronted preposition in formal writing.
Use this five-second workflow:
- Find the clause’s main verb.
- Ask who performed that verb.
- If the unknown person performed it, write who.
- If another person performed it toward the unknown person, write whom.
- If a preposition directly precedes the pronoun, choose whom in formal prose.
| If the sentence means… | Choose | Example |
|---|---|---|
| The person performed the action | who | Who approved the plan? |
| Someone performed an action on the person | whom | Whom did the board approve? |
| The person follows a formal preposition | whom | To whom should I write? |
| The preposition ends a conversational question | who is acceptable | Who should I write to? |
| The clause itself has a subject role | who or whoever | Whoever finishes first wins |
Expert insight: do not test the whole sentence
The most reliable test isolates the clause. In “The person who I think called,” the main sentence subject is “person,” but the relative-clause subject is “who.” Testing the full sentence can produce the wrong answer because the pronoun’s grammatical role belongs to its own clause.
Expert insight: passive voice changes the apparent logic
In “Whom was the committee praised by?” the pronoun is the object of “by,” so formal grammar permits whom, even though the person may have performed the underlying action. Grammatical case follows the actual construction, not the real-world agency alone.
Expert insight: recasting is often better than forcing whom
If “whom” sounds distracting, rewrite the sentence. “Who did the committee select?” is widely accepted in ordinary usage, while “The committee selected the applicant” removes the issue entirely. Clear syntax beats artificial formality.
Common Errors and Their Corrections
| Error | Why it fails | Correction |
|---|---|---|
| Whom is calling? | The pronoun is the subject | Who is calling? |
| Who did you invite? in strict formal prose | The pronoun is a direct object | Whom did you invite? |
| The person whom won | The pronoun performs “won” | The person who won |
| To who should I send it? | “Who” follows “to” directly | To whom should I send it? |
| Whomever arrives first wins | The pronoun is the subject of “arrives” | Whoever arrives first wins |
| Between you and I | “Between” requires object forms | Between you and me |
One frequent error is confusing grammatical correctness with social tone. Whom is formal, but formal does not mean universally preferable. A cover letter may use “To whom it may concern,” while a customer-service email may sound more natural with “Who should I contact?”
FAQ
Is “whom” disappearing from English?
Whom remains established in formal writing, fixed phrases, edited publications, and legal or academic contexts, but everyday speech increasingly favors who. The form is unlikely to vanish from expressions such as “to whom it may concern,” although many speakers avoid it by rewriting the sentence.
Should I use who or whom in a résumé?
Use the he/him test, then prioritize natural clarity. Write “The manager whom I supported” in highly formal prose, but “The manager I supported” is cleaner because the object relative pronoun can be omitted. Do not insert whom into subject phrases such as “the manager who led the team.”
Is “whom” required after every preposition?
Whom is the formal object form after a preposition, as in “with whom” or “for whom.” However, English also permits stranded prepositions, so “Who did you work with?” is normal modern usage. Formality, audience, and house style determine whether the fronted version is preferable.
Can “who” refer to an organization?
Who commonly refers to people and groups when the group is treated as an agent, especially in conversational English: “Who approved the policy?” Organizations are often referred to with “which” in formal restrictive clauses, as in “the company which issued the notice,” although style guides differ.
Is “whom” ever the subject?
In standard modern English, whom is not the subject form. A sentence such as “Whom arrived?” fails the substitution test because “Him arrived” is ungrammatical. Use who for a subject, even when the sentence is formal or the person is the object of attention.
Can I avoid choosing between who and whom?
Yes. Recast the sentence or omit an object relative pronoun where grammar permits. “The person whom I interviewed” can become “The person I interviewed,” and “With whom did you speak?” can become “Who did you speak with?” Recasting is especially useful when formal wording obscures the meaning.
The Bottom Line
Who is the subject form, and whom is the object form. Use the he/him test: he, she, or they points to who; him, her, or them points to whom. In formal writing, use whom after a directly preceding preposition, but recognize that “who did you speak with?” is ordinary modern English. When the distinction feels cumbersome, rewrite the sentence for clarity. Knowing who vs. whom which to use when with examples becomes simple once the clause, verb, and object are identified.
