To make ESL students speak more in ESL classes, replace teacher-led questioning with short, purposeful pair or group tasks that require every learner to exchange information, make a decision, or solve a problem. Provide language support before each task, monitor without interrupting fluency, and use delayed feedback after students finish speaking.
Key Facts at a Glance
A practical starting target is approximately 70% Student Talking Time and 30% Teacher Talking Time in a communicative ESL lesson.
Pair work usually gives each learner more speaking opportunity than whole-class discussion.
Beginner speaking tasks typically work best in 2-4 minute rounds, while advanced tasks can run 10-15 minutes.
Sentence frames reduce linguistic load, but teachers should remove them gradually as fluency improves.
Delayed correction protects conversational flow and lets teachers address recurring errors efficiently.
A speaking task needs a measurable outcome, a time limit, a language goal, and an accountability method.
How Do You Increase Student Talking Time?
Increase Student Talking Time by changing the lesson sequence from explain, ask one student, and evaluate to scaffold, pair, perform, monitor, and review. The teacher should speak only long enough to establish the objective, model the language, and clarify procedure. Students then spend most of the lesson exchanging meaning with classmates.
The 70:30 ratio is a useful planning benchmark, not a law. A pronunciation lesson may require more teacher modeling, while an advanced discussion class may reach 80-85% STT. The relevant question is whether teacher speech creates more student speech afterward.
Measure STT and TTT accurately
Use a simple observation sheet during a 50-minute lesson. Record teacher-directed explanation, modeling, instructions, feedback, student pair talk, student group talk, and student presentation separately.
If students speak for 34 minutes and the teacher speaks for 16 minutes, the lesson produces 68% STT and 32% TTT. That result is close to the benchmark, but it does not prove equal participation. One confident learner may still produce half of the student speech.
Track equity as well as total time. During two-minute monitoring samples, mark whether each student speaks, initiates a turn, asks a question, and responds to a peer. Individual participation matters more than a high classwide percentage.
Before You Start: Prepare the Speaking System
A 50-minute communicative ESL lesson usually needs 5 minutes for setup, 30-35 minutes for student tasks, 5-8 minutes for reporting, and 5 minutes for feedback. The typical cost is $0 if the teacher uses a board, paper, pens, and a phone timer.
| Preparation element | Typical specification | Purpose |
|---|---|---|
| Target vocabulary | 6-10 words | Reduce retrieval difficulty without scripting every answer |
| Sentence frames | 3-5 frames | Support grammar, turn-taking, and disagreement |
| Pair rounds | 2-4 rounds | Give learners repeated practice with variation |
| Task duration | 2-15 minutes | Match cognitive and linguistic demand to proficiency |
| Monitoring sheet | 1 page | Record participation and recurring errors |
| Physical materials | 1 prompt card per pair | Create information gaps or decision constraints |
Choose one communicative outcome. “Discuss travel” is too broad because students can remain silent, repeat memorized phrases, or switch to their first language. “Choose a three-day city trip under a $600 budget and justify two decisions” creates a visible result.
Write the outcome where students can see it. Add the language students need to complete it, but avoid teaching every possible word before speaking begins.
Step 1: Scaffold the Language Before Students Speak
Give students the minimum vocabulary, sentence frames, and model exchange needed to complete the task. A 3-5 minute scaffold is usually sufficient for a familiar topic; a complex role-play may need 8 minutes, but longer explanations often reduce the speaking time they are meant to create.
For a class discussing food choices, provide:
- “I would choose ___ because ___.”
- “I agree with ___ because ___.”
- “I see your point, but ___.”
- “Could you explain why ___?”
- “We have decided to ___.”
Model one exchange with a student or another teacher. Then ask students to identify the function of each phrase, such as giving a reason, challenging an idea, or requesting clarification.
Do not require students to reproduce the model word for word. The scaffold should make communication possible, not turn speaking into a recitation exercise.
You will know it worked when students can produce one relevant sentence without teacher prompting.
Common mistake: Pre-teaching 20-30 words that students never use. Reduce the list to high-utility language that directly supports the task.
Use a support ladder
Offer support in stages:
- Full sentence frame: “I prefer ___ because ___.”
- Partial frame: “I prefer ___ because…”
- Key connectors only: “because,” “however,” “for example.”
- No visible frame during the final round.
This progression preserves accuracy early and encourages independent production later. Adult beginners may remain at stage one for several rounds, while upper-intermediate students often need only discourse markers and question stems.
Step 2: Put Students Into Pairs or Triads
Move students into pairs or triads immediately after the instructions. Pair work maximizes individual turns, while triads create more varied interaction and are easier to manage when the class has an uneven number of learners.
| Grouping format | Typical student turns | Best use | Main risk |
|---|---|---|---|
| Pair | 8-15 turns per learner in 4 minutes | Information gaps and rehearsal | Unequal proficiency pairing |
| Triad | 5-10 turns per learner in 6 minutes | Ranking and decision tasks | One learner dominates |
| Four-person group | 3-7 turns per learner in 8 minutes | Projects and problem solving | Passive listeners |
| Mingle | 4-8 short exchanges in 8 minutes | Repetition and rapport | Noise and weak accountability |
Assign roles when a task has more than two students. Useful roles include facilitator, language monitor, note-taker, reporter, and timekeeper. Rotate roles between rounds so the note-taker does not avoid speaking.
Use random pairing for fluency practice and deliberate pairing for support. A strong speaker paired with a beginner can model useful language, but repeated pairing may create dependency. Change partners after one or two rounds.
You will know it worked when every learner has a partner, understands the first turn, and begins speaking within 30 seconds of task release.
Common mistake: Asking, “Who wants to answer?” before arranging interaction. That procedure selects the most confident student and leaves the rest as an audience.
Step 3: Release a Goal-Oriented Speaking Task
Give students a task with four visible components: an objective, constraints, a time limit, and a final product. Students speak more when communication is necessary to finish something, rather than when the teacher merely requests opinions.
A strong instruction sounds like this:
“You have four minutes. Find three things you both have in common. Ask at least two follow-up questions. Write one surprising difference. Report your findings without reading full sentences.”
A weak instruction sounds like this:
“Talk about your hobbies.”
The stronger version creates a reason to listen, ask questions, remember information, and report. Those behaviors generate more language than a general discussion prompt.
Select the right task type
| Task type | Example outcome | Level | Typical time |
|---|---|---|---|
| Information gap | Complete a train timetable using missing details | A1-A2 | 4-7 minutes |
| Find someone who | Find classmates who have completed five listed experiences | A1-B1 | 6-10 minutes |
| Ranking task | Rank emergency items from most to least useful | B1-B2 | 8-12 minutes |
| Problem-solving task | Plan a $600 weekend trip for two people | B1-C1 | 10-15 minutes |
| Role-play negotiation | Agree on a workplace schedule and defend concessions | B2-C1 | 12-20 minutes |
Task-Based Learning commonly separates a pre-task phase, the main task, a report, and language focus. This sequence works because students first understand the situation, then prioritize meaning, and only afterward examine language they actually needed.
Add an information gap
An information gap gives Partner A facts that Partner B does not have. The partners cannot complete the worksheet by silently reading or copying, so they must ask, listen, clarify, and record.
For beginners, give A a hotel reservation card and B a booking form. For intermediate learners, give each partner half of a neighborhood map. For advanced learners, provide conflicting business proposals and require a joint recommendation.
You will know it worked when students ask for missing information rather than reading identical materials.
Common mistake: Giving every learner the same worksheet. Identical information removes the communicative reason to speak.
Step 4: Monitor Without Taking Over
Monitor by moving quietly, listening in short samples, and recording evidence rather than correcting every utterance. The teacher should intervene when students cannot understand the task, communication has stopped, or an error blocks meaning.
Use quick codes such as:
- L: useful language
- G: grammar issue
- P: pronunciation issue
- M: meaning breakdown
- E: equitable participation issue
Listen for 20-40 seconds at each group before moving on. Record exact examples, such as “He go yesterday” or “I agree you,” instead of writing vague notes such as “past tense problems.”
Wait 5-7 seconds after a student pauses. Processing time is particularly important for beginners, who may need to retrieve vocabulary, construct syntax, and manage pronunciation simultaneously. Finishing a student’s sentence removes the retrieval practice that builds independence.
You will know it worked when most groups continue speaking after you leave them.
Common mistake: Standing beside one group for the entire task. Teacher proximity can convert peer communication into teacher-student performance.
Use an intervention threshold
Apply this decision rule:
- If the error does not affect meaning, keep monitoring.
- If a partner asks for clarification, let students repair communication first.
- If the group cannot continue, provide one word, gesture, or sentence frame.
- If the same breakdown affects several groups, pause the class briefly and clarify.
This approach distinguishes fluency practice from accuracy practice. Interrupting every grammar error is unsuitable for a task whose primary outcome is spontaneous interaction.
Step 5: Conduct Delayed Feedback
After the speaking task, address recurring language patterns without naming individual students. Delayed feedback should include useful successes, two or four high-value errors, and a short opportunity to improve the original performance.
Write anonymous examples on the board:
- “Yesterday I go to the market.”
- “I agree with you, because is cheaper.”
- “Can you repeat? I not understand.”
- “She suggested to take the train.”
Ask pairs to correct the sentences. Then elicit the improved forms:
- “Yesterday I went to the market.”
- “I agree with you because it is cheaper.”
- “Can you repeat? I do not understand.”
- “She suggested taking the train.”
Finish with a 60-90 second rerun. Students repeat one part of the task while deliberately using one corrected form. Retrieval during a second performance is more useful than copying corrections into a notebook.
Separate fluency and accuracy goals
Tell students which goal matters first. In a fluency round, prioritize meaning, turn-taking, and sustained speech. In an accuracy round, require a target structure and pause to reformulate.
Pronunciation feedback also works better when selective. Correct word stress or a consonant only when it affects intelligibility or represents a recurring class pattern. Constant correction teaches learners to wait for approval before continuing.
How Do You Make Shy Students Speak?
Shy ESL students speak more reliably when they receive private rehearsal, predictable roles, and a low-risk first response. Use think time, written notes, pair practice, and then optional public reporting instead of sending an unprepared learner directly into whole-class performance.
Think-Pair-Share is effective because it moves through three risk levels: silent planning, one-to-one speaking, and larger-group reporting. Give students 30-60 seconds to write keywords, 2 minutes to rehearse with a partner, and only then invite a report.
Choice prompts reduce the burden of generating content. Replace “What do you think about climate change?” with “Should cities limit private cars? Choose yes or no, then give one reason.” As confidence grows, remove the forced choice and request two reasons or a counterargument.
Avoid praising silence-breaking with exaggerated attention. A brief acknowledgment followed by a peer response keeps the interaction communicative rather than turning the student’s contribution into a teacher event.
How Do You Keep Students From Using Their First Language?
Reduce unnecessary L1 use by making the English task achievable, giving usable language, and requiring an English product. A ban alone rarely works when students lack the vocabulary or when the task can be completed more efficiently in their first language.
Diagnose the cause before applying a penalty:
| L1 cause | Observable sign | Better response |
|---|---|---|
| Task too difficult | Long pauses and repeated translation | Reduce choices and add frames |
| Instructions unclear | Students ask what to do in L1 | Demonstrate one sample turn |
| Missing vocabulary | Students point or use isolated nouns | Add six to ten essential words |
| Social habit | Students complete easy tasks in L1 | Add an English report or checklist |
| Unequal proficiency | One learner translates everything | Change roles and pairings |
A “language captain” can remind peers to use English, but the role should not become policing. Give each group three English-use tokens or check marks and require one mark for each completed exchange.
For multilingual classrooms, allow brief strategic L1 use during complex planning if the final product requires English. This is more realistic than pretending students never use their full linguistic resources, especially in advanced content-based lessons.
Which Grouping Method Produces the Most Speaking?
Pairs generally produce the highest individual speaking time, triads support more natural negotiation, and mingles provide repetition with multiple partners. The best choice depends on whether the lesson prioritizes volume, interactional variety, or collaborative decision-making.
Use pairs for beginners, shy learners, pronunciation rehearsal, and information gaps. Use triads for ranking tasks where students must justify, challenge, and revise decisions. Use mingles for repeated personal questions, but provide a recording sheet so students cannot walk around without communicating.
Whole-class discussion should follow, not replace, pair work. After rehearsal, students have ideas and language ready for public sharing. Ask groups to report a finding or decision rather than inviting every individual to answer the same teacher question.
A practical sequence is pair rehearsal, triad negotiation, then one-minute group report. The format widens participation while keeping the teacher’s whole-class speaking load low.
How Long Should ESL Speaking Tasks Last?
Beginner speaking rounds usually work best at 2-4 minutes, intermediate tasks at 5-10 minutes, and advanced debates or simulations at 10-15 minutes. The correct duration ends shortly before interaction becomes repetitive, confused, or dependent on L1.
Use multiple short rounds when learners need confidence and accuracy. Change one variable between rounds, such as partner, picture, role, vocabulary restriction, or required question type.
| Learner profile | First round | Later round | Product |
|---|---|---|---|
| Young beginner | 1-2 minutes | 2-3 minutes | Point, name, or say a patterned phrase |
| Adult A1-A2 | 2-4 minutes | 4-6 minutes | Complete a form or exchange facts |
| Intermediate B1-B2 | 5-7 minutes | 8-12 minutes | Reach and explain a decision |
| Advanced C1 | 8-10 minutes | 12-15 minutes | Defend a position and respond to objections |
A timer creates urgency, but it should not replace a meaningful goal. If students finish early, require a follow-up question, a reason, a counterexample, or a role reversal.
How Do You Adapt Activities for Different Learners?
Adapt the linguistic load, cognitive complexity, and interactional demand separately. A topic can remain identical while the frames, information quantity, and required outcome change substantially by level.
Adult beginners
Use substitution drills that lead quickly into real exchanges. Students can ask, “Do you like tea?” and answer, “Yes, I do,” before adding “because it helps me relax.” Information gaps are preferable to open-ended opinion questions at A1 because they provide content and language simultaneously.
Intermediate learners
Require follow-up questions and reasons. A suitable task is planning a class event with a fixed budget, transport limit, and weather problem. Students must negotiate rather than take turns reading prepared sentences.
Advanced learners
Use competing evidence, role constraints, and formal pragmatic goals. In a workplace negotiation, one learner may need to protect a deadline, another a budget, and a third employee wellbeing. Assess concessions, clarification, diplomatic disagreement, and evidence use, not only grammatical accuracy.
Young learners
Keep rounds under 3 minutes and attach speech to movement, pictures, chants, puppets, or classroom objects. Give children a visible turn structure, such as ask, answer, switch. Total Physical Response can establish meaning, but students still need an oral production stage.
Corporate and business ESL
Use meetings, customer calls, case studies, and mock negotiations. Feedback should include professional tone, hedging, turn-taking, clarification, and register because a grammatically accurate sentence can still sound too direct in a workplace.
What Should a 50-Minute High-STT Lesson Look Like?
A 50-minute ESL speaking lesson can target approximately 35 minutes of student speech through three rehearsed tasks, one report, and delayed feedback. The teacher spends about 10-15 minutes on instructions, modeling, transitions, and review, with the largest success factor being task clarity.
| Lesson stage | Time | Student action | Teacher action |
|---|---|---|---|
| Context and model | 5 minutes | Predict and repeat key language | Demonstrate one exchange |
| Pair information gap | 7 minutes | Ask for missing details | Monitor and record |
| Partner change | 6 minutes | Repeat with a new learner | Check participation |
| Group decision | 10 minutes | Rank options and justify choices | Intervene only at breakdown |
| Report preparation | 4 minutes | Select evidence and assign roles | Clarify reporting target |
| Group reports | 8 minutes | Share findings and respond | Ask one follow-up per group |
| Delayed feedback | 5 minutes | Correct examples and rerun lines | Teach recurring patterns |
| Exit response | 5 minutes | Record or say one conclusion | Assess individual production |
For online classes, use breakout rooms of two or three students, display the task and frames on one slide, broadcast a two-minute warning, and require each room to submit one written finding. Visit rooms briefly rather than remaining in the main room.
Online lessons need stronger accountability because cameras, microphones, and connection delays can hide nonparticipation. A shared document, individual voice recording, or rotating reporter makes student output visible.
What Are the Most Effective ESL Speaking Activities?
Information gaps, ranking tasks, role-plays, and mingles are effective because each requires a specific exchange rather than a voluntary contribution. Activity choice should match the language objective, class size, and level.
- Information gap: Give partners different schedules, maps, pictures, or facts. Students ask questions until they complete the missing information.
- Ranking task: Give groups six options and require a final order with two reasons for the top choice.
- Find someone who: Provide five prompts and require a follow-up question after each match.
- Role-play: Give each participant a private goal, such as reducing cost, protecting time, or persuading a customer.
- Problem-solving task: Present a constraint, such as a $600 budget, four available workers, or an urgent travel delay.
- Opinion line: Students choose a position physically or digitally, explain it to a neighbor, and respond to one opposing reason.
The activity itself does not guarantee speech. A role-play with vague roles can produce less language than a tightly designed beginner information gap.
Common Mistakes That Reduce ESL Student Speech
Teacher behavior, not student motivation, often explains low STT. The most damaging habits are long explanations, vague prompts, instant correction, and treating one volunteer’s answer as evidence that the class understands.
| Mistake | Immediate effect | Recovery |
|---|---|---|
| Echoing every answer | Raises TTT and teaches students to address the teacher | Nod, gesture, or direct the speaker to a peer |
| Finishing sentences | Removes retrieval practice | Wait 5-7 seconds, then offer one keyword |
| Correcting every error | Interrupts fluency and increases anxiety | Record patterns and use delayed feedback |
| Asking broad questions | Produces “I don’t know” or one-word replies | Add choices, constraints, and a required reason |
| Explaining rules too long | Leaves little task time | Model two examples and release the task |
| Keeping fixed pairs | Creates dependency and predictable silence | Rotate partners after each round |
One counterintuitive practitioner rule is that clearer instructions often increase speech more than additional vocabulary. If students misunderstand the outcome, extra language support cannot repair the interaction.
Another rule is to reduce teacher praise during the task. Frequent “Good,” “Excellent,” and repetition interrupts peer listening. Save evaluative comments for the report or feedback stage.
How Do You Fix Silence, Dominant Speakers, and Weak Participation?
Fix silence by reducing task difficulty and increasing preparation; fix dominant speakers with turn constraints and roles; fix weak participation by measuring individual output rather than accepting group completion. Each barrier requires a different intervention.
Students say “I don’t know”
Offer a response ladder:
- Choose A or B.
- Give one reason.
- Add a personal example.
- Ask a partner whether they agree.
- Give a contrasting view.
This preserves challenge while preventing a blank prompt from ending the exchange. Give silent planning time before requiring speech.
One student monopolizes
Give each student three tokens. A learner spends one token per substantive turn and may speak again only after every group member has used one. Replace tokens with a turn tracker in online classes.
Do not make the dominant learner a permanent “helper.” That role can reward over-speaking and position the quieter learner as dependent. Rotate facilitator and reporter responsibilities.
Groups finish too quickly
Add a second condition, such as a budget, time limit, opposing preference, or requirement to cite two reasons. A task should become more complex through interaction, not through a longer worksheet.
Students produce memorized language
Require an unpredictable follow-up question or partner change. Memorized frames support initial confidence, but spontaneous response is needed to demonstrate communicative ability.
How Should You Assess Speaking Without Stopping Conversation?
Assess speaking with brief observation categories during communication and a focused rubric after the task. Fluency, intelligibility, interaction, task completion, and accuracy should not all receive equal weight in every lesson.
| Criterion | Emerging performance | Developing performance | Strong performance |
|---|---|---|---|
| Fluency | Frequent pauses stop meaning | Pauses but message continues | Sustains speech with manageable pauses |
| Interaction | Gives answers only | Asks occasional follow-ups | Initiates, responds, and repairs |
| Intelligibility | Frequent repetition needed | Mostly understandable | Meaning remains clear to unfamiliar listeners |
| Task completion | Missing required information | Completes part of outcome | Completes outcome with supporting details |
| Accuracy | Errors frequently obscure meaning | Errors occur without regular breakdown | Target forms are usually controlled |
Use one or two criteria per lesson. A teacher who tries to score every feature while monitoring will either miss evidence or interrupt students. For formative assessment, a checklist with student names and four brief codes is usually sufficient.
Self-assessment can follow the task: “I asked two follow-up questions,” “I used one disagreement phrase,” or “I spoke English for the whole round.” These statements measure behaviors students can control.
How Much Do These Strategies Cost?
A high-STT ESL lesson can be delivered for $0-$15 using a board, printed cards, a timer, and a simple observation sheet. Optional platforms such as Kahoot, Padlet, or Baamboozle may add subscription costs, but paid software is not required for the underlying pedagogy.
| Resource | Typical cost | Classroom use | Free alternative |
|---|---|---|---|
| Digital timer | $0 | Task pacing | Phone stopwatch |
| Printed prompt cards | $0.05-$0.20 per learner | Information gaps | Handwritten slips |
| Dice or counters | $1-$5 | Turn limits and random prompts | Paper clips |
| Shared online board | $0-$15 monthly | Online reporting | Shared document |
| Quiz platform | $0-$15 monthly | Warm-up and retrieval | Board race or paper quiz |
The main investment is preparation time. A first lesson may require 30-60 minutes to create differentiated cards and role instructions; later lessons often need 10-20 minutes when the teacher reuses a reliable task structure.
Paid tools are poor substitutes for task design. A colorful quiz can increase short answers, yet it may produce less sustained interaction than two paper cards containing different information.
Which Alternatives Work When Pair Work Fails?
Use triads when pairs become repetitive, mingles when students need multiple repetitions, and individual recordings when class conditions prevent live interaction. No format is universally superior because each changes the balance between speech volume, variety, monitoring, and cognitive demand.
Pairs are unsuitable when a mismatch creates persistent dependency or when a learner needs several interlocutors to practice negotiation. Triads can solve that problem, but assign turn roles because the third learner may otherwise become an observer.
Mingles work well for personal questions and repeated pronunciation practice. They are weaker for complex reasoning because noise, movement, and short exchanges limit extended discourse. Use a checklist, a partner limit, and a final report to maintain purpose.
Individual audio submissions are useful for asynchronous courses and anxious learners. They do not replace spontaneous interaction, because a recording allows extensive planning and contains no real-time repair.
How Do You Know the Lesson Actually Increased Speaking?
A lesson increased speaking when more learners produced more meaningful turns, not merely when the room became louder. Check total STT, individual participation, task completion, and evidence of interactional functions such as asking, clarifying, disagreeing, and repairing.
At the end of class, collect four indicators:
- Number of minutes spent in student interaction.
- Number of learners who spoke in each monitored sample.
- Number of required questions or follow-ups completed.
- One recurring language pattern for the next lesson.
If STT reaches 70% but five learners remain silent, revise grouping and accountability. If every student speaks but only repeats one sentence, increase the information gap or add a decision constraint.
The strongest improvement cycle is small: measure one lesson, change one variable, and measure again. Change task instructions before buying a new platform.
FAQ
How can I get ESL students to speak without forcing them?
Use private planning, pair rehearsal, predictable sentence frames, and choice-based questions before public reporting. Students can first write three keywords, practice with one partner, and then report a group finding. This creates participation pressure through task design while avoiding the anxiety of an unprepared individual performance.
Should ESL teachers allow students to use their native language?
Limited strategic use can be acceptable when students are handling complex content, but the speaking outcome should still require English interaction. If L1 replaces the task, simplify instructions, reduce vocabulary demands, add sentence frames, or create missing information that students must exchange in English.
How do I teach grammar while increasing speaking?
Teach only the grammar needed for the immediate communicative task, model two examples, and let students use the form before giving detailed correction. Record recurring errors during interaction, address two or four patterns afterward, and give students a short second performance using the corrected forms.
What is the best speaking activity for ESL beginners?
Information-gap activities are usually the strongest starting point for adult beginners because each learner holds information a partner needs. Use six to ten vocabulary items, three sentence frames, a 2-4 minute round, and a concrete product such as a completed schedule, form, or matching chart.
How can large ESL classes produce more speaking?
Use fixed pairs or triads with numbered roles, projected instructions, and simultaneous tasks. Monitor different groups in short samples rather than attempting to hear everyone continuously. Require one written group result and use a rotating individual checklist to identify students who need a new partner or additional support.
Can these techniques work in online ESL classes?
Yes. Use breakout rooms of two or three, place instructions and frames on one shared screen, set a visible timer, and require each room to submit a finding. Visit rooms briefly, record recurring errors, and bring students back for delayed feedback. Individual voice recordings can supplement live interaction but cannot replace spontaneous turn-taking.
The Bottom Line
To make ESL students speak more in ESL classes, design communication that students must complete together, then provide only the language support needed to begin. Aim initially for about 70% STT, use 2-4 minute beginner rounds or 5-15 minute advanced tasks, monitor without interrupting, and correct recurring errors afterward. The exact keyword is less important than the system: clear outcome, useful scaffold, accountable grouping, purposeful interaction, and measured participation.
